Comprehensive guide to barley cultivation: technique, management and marketing

General information and origin of barley cultivation

La barley (vulgar hordeum) is one of the oldest and most essential cereals globally, forming a fundamental part of agricultural systems due to its versatility, rusticity and adaptation to different climates and soils. Its cultivation dates back to prehistoric times, and it is considered one of the first domesticated cereals, with remains from the beginning of agriculture found in regions such as Asia and North Africa.

Currently, barley is among the world's four largest cereals, surpassed only by wheat, corn, and rice. Its production is widespread across five continents and is notable for its uses in animal feed, the production of beverages such as beer and fermented drinks, and, to a lesser extent, for human consumption in the form of flour, soups, or flakes.

Barley excels in crop rotation systems, where it contributes to improving soil structure and fertility, and to managing weeds and diseases, promoting the sustainability and productivity of agricultural holdings.

Economic importance and geographical distribution

Barley cultivation is key in many regions of the world. It is particularly well adapted to temperate, cool and semi-arid climatesWorldwide, countries such as Russia, France, Germany, Ukraine, Spain, Canada, Australia, and China are leaders in production. In regions such as Spain, it is one of the most widely cultivated crops, occupying large areas in Castile and León, Aragon, Castile-La Mancha, and Andalusia.

La production and destination of barley These vary depending on the variety and market needs. Approximately half of the barley produced worldwide is used for animal feed, while a significant percentage is used in the brewing industry, due to the high demand for barley malt in the production of beer and spirits. Its flexible use makes it an excellent option for both large and small farmers.

Morphological characteristics and taxonomy of barley

Barley belongs to the family poaceae and presents a morphophysiological development that facilitates its adaptation to different environments:

• Su root system It is fibrous and superficial, which allows it to make good use of water and nutrients in the upper soil profile.
• El stem It is erect, with several internodes, and its height ranges between 50 cm and 1 m, depending on the variety and growing conditions.
• The leaves They are long and light green, paler than those of wheat, a characteristic that helps to identify it in the field.
• The spikes They can be two, four or six rows of grain, which partly determines the final use of the grain (malt or animal feed/consumption).
• El fruit It is a covered caryopsis, except in the naked varieties.

Main varieties of barley and their uses

The success of barley cultivation depends largely on the correct selection of the variety. Varieties can be classified according to the sowing season (winter and spring barley) and spike morphology:

1. 6 row barley: They have six rows of grains per ear and are generally used for animal feed and fodder, thanks to their higher protein content. They are less common for malt production.
2. 2 row barley: the most commonly used in the beer industry due to their higher extract content and lower protein content. They are also commonly used for animal consumption, especially in areas where quality is more important than quantity.

Regarding the sowing season:

• Invierno: It is sown in autumn and requires a winter hiatus to germinate properly. It is ideal for areas with mild winters and allows you to take advantage of winter and spring rains.
• Spring barley: Sown between late winter and spring, it doesn't require vernalization and matures more quickly. It's perfect for regions with harsh winters or for second crops under irrigated land.

Due to its purpose, barley can be used for:

• Animal feeding: the most common option, with varieties selected for their higher yield and not so much for the quality of the grain.
• Brewing industry (malt): special 2-row varieties, with low protein content, high extract and good grain homogeneity.
• Human consumption: to a lesser extent, in the form of flours, flakes, soups and prepared foods, taking advantage of their nutritional properties.

Requirements and optimal growing conditions

Light and temperature

Barley needs at least six hours of direct sunlight daily to achieve optimal development. The ideal temperature range for cultivation is between 13 ° C and 21 ° C, although it can tolerate temperatures from 5°C to over 25°C depending on the variety and the phase of the cycle. Very low temperatures negatively affect the plant, especially during tillering (formation of secondary stems) and flowering.

Winter barley is more resistant to low temperatures, even withstanding light frosts, while spring barley is more sensitive and should be sown in a timely manner to avoid the risk of intense cold.

Water requirements

Barley is distinguished by its relative resistance to drought, which is why it is common in dryland areas. However, to obtain high yields, the availability of water during the critical stages (germination, tillering, stemming, and grain filling) is crucial.

Total water requirements are usually between 300 and 500 mm of water From sowing to harvesting. Under irrigated land, production can double or triple compared to dryland farming, reaching yields exceeding 10.000 kg/ha under optimal conditions, compared to the typical 1.500–6.000 kg/ha under dryland farming.

Irrigation should preferably be carried out at the beginning of the cycle and during grain filling, avoiding excesses that promote lodging (plant fall) and the development of fungal diseases.

Soil type and preparation

Barley adapts to a wide range of soils, but prefers deep, well-drained soils rich in organic matter, with an optimal pH between 6,0 and 7,5. It is recommended to avoid heavy clayey, waterlogged, or compacted soils, as they hinder germination and root development. Barley tolerates salinity fairly well and grows well in calcareous soils, popularly known as "cebaderos."

La site preparation It should be done through deep tillage to improve aeration and infiltration capacity. It is important to remove stones (using hopper stone removers) and debris from previous crops. Incorporating organic matter or compost improves structure and fertility, promoting seedling establishment and crop development.

Tillage and land preparation

El soil preparation process It begins with deep tillage to loosen the soil profile and facilitate root penetration. In rotation systems, barley is often planted after fallow or legume crops that enrich the soil with nitrogen.

La leveling of the land and the elimination of compaction are essential, especially in irrigated soils, to prevent waterlogging and damage to germination. Tillage should be tailored to the soil type, avoiding leaving it too hollow (which would hinder germination) or excessively compacted. The use of folding rollers with a cultivator helps achieve a fine, firm seedbed.

Sowing barley: techniques and considerations

La planting season It varies depending on the variety and region, but it's best to sow early so the plant can take advantage of the rain and develop before temperatures rise. Winter barley is sown in the fall, and spring barley is sown from late winter to early spring.

La planting depth The recommended spacing is between 2 and 4 cm, ensuring adequate humidity and good contact between the seed and the soil. planting density It depends on the variety, crop purpose, and tillage type, but generally ranges from 120 to 180 kg/ha for row sowing and up to 200 kg/ha for broadcast sowing or for forage. For late sowing or for forage, dosages may be increased.

• The use of pneumatic or mechanical direct seeding machines improves uniformity and reduces seed consumption.
• Homogeneous sowing is key to obtaining a uniform plant mass and facilitating subsequent protection and harvesting tasks.

Nutrition and fertilization of barley crops

La fertilization It must be tailored to the specific needs of the crop and soil, always based on a prior analysis to avoid deficiencies or excesses. Barley primarily requires:

• Nitrogen (N): Essential for good vegetative development, it should be applied in moderate amounts to prevent lodging and increase protein levels in varieties intended for malting. It is recommended to split the dose, applying part as a base dressing and the remainder as a top dressing, especially during the tillering and stemming phase. Typical doses: 80–120 kg/ha, adjusted according to expected productivity and intended use.
• Phosphorus (P): important for root development and grain formation, it is usually added as a base dressing. Recommended dosage: 40–60 kg/ha.
• Potassium (K): Strengthens disease resistance and aids grain formation. Recommended dosage: 60–80 kg/ha.
• Micronutrients: such as zinc, iron, manganese and magnesium, may be necessary in deficient soils after specific analysis.

Combining organic fertilization (manure, compost, slurry) and mineral is a common and preferred practice in sustainable agricultural systems. It is essential not to exceed nitrogen levels for malting barley, as high-protein grains are not suitable for beer production.

Related article:

Polyculture: Characteristics, Types, Advantages, Benefits and Examples

Cultural care: irrigation and water management

Barley is a rustic cultivation and drought resistant, but maximizes its yield when provided sufficient water in critical phases of the cycle:

• En dry landBarley takes advantage of the autumn and spring rains. It's in more arid areas where its hardiness makes it the best alternative, although yields are lower (1.500–4.500 kg/ha).
• En irrigation, very high yields can be obtained (>8.000 kg/ha), but it is essential not to exceed irrigation to avoid lodging and fungal problems, especially in the final stages of the crop.

El sprinkler irrigation It is the most widely used method, although other techniques are also used in small fields depending on availability and infrastructure. Moisture control is essential for success: keep the soil slightly moist at first and reduce the amount as the plant matures. The use of agronomic indicators or moisture sensors helps optimize irrigation.

Integrated management of weeds, pests and diseases

Weeds

El weed control It is crucial in the early stages of the crop, as barley is sensitive to competition during establishment. Integrated management includes:

• Proper tillage and land preparation.
• Crop rotation to reduce the weed seed bank.
• Use of selective herbicides depending on the predominant type of weed and the stage of the crop.
• Selecting planting dates to take advantage of periods of lower weed emergence.

Main pests in barley cultivation

The most relevant pests are:

• Aphids: They can cause direct damage (sap suction) and transmit viruses such as barley yellow dwarf.
• Corn earworm, click beetles, cottony cushion scales and brown bugs.
• Tagline: defoliant that in some campaigns can affect performance.

Monitoring and using insecticides only when necessary, along with rotation and tolerant varietal selection, are pillars of integrated management.

Main diseases of barley

• bacterial blight
• fusarium
• Net spot of barley
• Yellow dwarfism (viral disease)
• Downy mildew and powdery mildew
• Wheat eyespot
• Root rot
• Helminthosporiosis, rhynchosporiosis and powdery mildew

The decision apply fungicides It depends on the level of incidence and performance expectations. Integrated disease management includes:

• Use of certified and treated seeds
• Crop rotation
• Choosing resistant varieties
• Avoid bedding and excess moisture

Growth cycle and phases of barley cultivation

El barley cycle varies according to the variety and environmental conditions, typically ranging from 90 and 150 days from sowing to harvest. Several phases are recognized:

1. Germination and establishment (7-10 days): Keeping the soil moist is essential. Good emergence ensures a regular growth pattern and maximum efficiency in water and nutrient utilization.
2. Tillering or tillering: formation of secondary stems. This is key to determining final spike density and yield potential.
3. Vegetative growth (30-45 days): development of biomass, leaves and stems.
4. Earing and flowering (20-30 days): formation and opening of the spike, a stage sensitive to water and thermal stress.
5. Grain filling and ripening (30-40 days): last stage where irrigation and phytosanitary protection determine the quality and quantity of the grain.

Long-cycle varieties (autumn sown) are more stable but may offer lower maximum yields than short-cycle varieties (spring sown or irrigated), which have higher yield potential but are more sensitive to adverse conditions during critical stages.

Harvest, collection and post-harvest handling

La barley harvest It should be done when the plant has a uniform golden color and the grain reaches a moisture content between 12% and 18%If the crop is intended for malting, it is necessary to be especially meticulous to ensure the integrity of the grain and avoid mechanical damage.

La mechanized harvesting It is carried out using a combine harvester-thresher, and it is advisable to start the task when the grain is sufficiently dry to avoid storage problems. If humidity is high, artificial drying is necessary before storage.

La barley straw It also has commercial value, used in livestock as bedding or even as a food supplement.

Grain storage

Barley grain should be stored in cool, dry places with adequate ventilation to prevent mold and insect problems. Grains suitable for malting require carefully controlled temperatures and humidity:

• Grains with less than 10,5% moisture content can be stored for up to 18 months between 10 and 20°C.
• With humidity levels above 12,5%, the safe storage period is reduced and it is recommended not to exceed 3 months at temperatures above 20°C.

Marketing and quality of barley

Barley is easily marketed due to its widespread demand and network of buyers (grain stores, feed mills, malt houses). price of barley It depends on the variety, the destination (malt or feed), the specific weight, the homogeneity and the protein content.

For malting barleyIt is essential to produce homogeneous grains with low protein levels and high germination potential. In animal feed, yield and protein are prioritized.

Key factors that influence quality and final price:

• La variety used
• Conditions of fertilization (especially nitrogen)
• incidence of diseases and pests
• Problems of bedridden (plants falling)
• Weather conditions, mainly in the grain filling and ripening phase

Innovations and sustainable management in barley cultivation

The cereal sector is moving towards a more sustainable and integrated agricultural management, combining conservation agriculture practices, integrated pest management, rational fertilization, and the use of precision technologies (humidity sensors, satellite monitoring, productivity maps, and weather forecasting).

La crop rotationThe use of plant cover and the introduction of varieties that are more resistant to disease and drought can improve the resilience of the system, preserve the soil, and maximize profitability with a lower environmental impact.

Barley cultivation is a profitable and sustainable alternative, ideal for diversified systems, and requires technical knowledge in agronomic management, plant protection, varietal selection, and marketing to achieve its full productive potential. Its adaptability, its role in crop rotation, and its multiple uses ensure that it will remain a fundamental pillar of modern agriculture.