Tribulus terrestris (caltrop): characteristics, properties and complete cultivation

Introduction to caltrop (Tribulus terrestris)

The caltrop, scientifically known as Tribulus terrestris, is a herbaceous plant widely recognized for its morphological characteristics, as well as for its traditional use and impact on agriculture and natural medicine. It belongs to the family Zygophyllaceae and is distinguished by its ability to adapt to adverse conditions, its creeping growth and its thorny fruits which gives it fame and notoriety in all the places where it prospers.

Native to warm regions of Europe, Asia and Africa, the caltrop has naturalized almost everywhere in the world, becoming a species of interest both for its medicinal properties and for the challenges it poses in agricultural management. Its properties, uses, and complex biology have made it the subject of numerous studies and debates.

Taxonomy and nomenclature of Tribulus terrestris

El Tribulus terrestris It falls within the botanical classification as follows:

• Reino: plant
• Division: Magnoliophyta
• Class: Magnoliopsida
• Order: Zygophyllales
• Family: Zygophyllaceae
• GenderTribulus
• SpeciesTribulus terrestris

Name Tribulus derives from the Greek «tobias", which refers to a thorny weapon or trap, clearly alluding to its fruits covered with thorns Tough and sharp. The epithet "terrestris" means "of the earth," emphasizing their creeping habit.

It is known by numerous vernacular names, such as thistle, ground caltrop, bull Head, bull, groyne, cat's paw o punxa-claus, among others, depending on the region and local tradition.

Botanical description and morphological characteristics

The caltrop is a annual or perennial herbaceous plant, depending on the climate, and usually grows prostrate on the ground, forming dense tapestries, although it can develop a certain verticality if it competes for light among taller vegetation.

• Tallos: Branched from the base, from 1 cm to more than 1 meter in length, covered with fine, stiff hairs, which can be straight or slightly woolly.
• Leaves: Of the opposite type, paripinnately compound with between 3 and 8 pairs of small, oblong leaflets covered with hair on the underside, giving them a silky texture.
• FloresSmall, solitary, axillary, with five bright yellow petals, approximately 4 to 15 mm in diameter. They have five hirsute sepals and ten stamens in two whorls.
• Fruits: The most distinctive element. They are schizocarps Asteriform, formed by five hard, rough mericarps, each armed with two main spines and up to two shorter lateral ones. The spines are so firm that they can puncture tires or injure the feet of people and animals.
• Seeds: Oval, small in size and with a membranous coat, they remain viable in the soil for several years, which favors their persistence.

Esta morphological adaptation It ensures the survival and dispersal of the species in inhospitable environments and the colonizing success in new territories.

Geographic distribution and habitat

The caltrop It is native to warm, semi-arid regions of the South of Europe, Asia, Africa and northern Australia, but is currently widely naturalized globally. Can be found at:

• Roadsides
• Wastelands
• Beaches and sandy areas
• Cultivated fields and crop margins
• Slopes and disturbed soils, always in humanized environments

Su wide secondary distribution It ranges from temperate to tropical regions, thriving even in poor, sandy, or gravelly soils and resisting extreme drought. It also adapts to altitudes ranging from sea level to over 2000 meters in areas such as the Valley of Mexico and the Asian highlands.

Plant ecology and biology

Tribulus terrestris It is a very resistant plant that It blooms and bears fruit during the warm seasonsIts life cycle depends on climatic conditions, being annual in cold climates and can behave as a perennial in warm environments.

• Propagation: Mainly by seeds, which are dormant and require high temperatures to germinate.
• Dispersion: Epizoochory, that is, seeds/fruits adhere to the fur or hooves of animals, as well as to clothing, wheels and agricultural machinery, facilitating their transport over long distances.
• Phenological cycle: It blooms from late spring to autumn, bearing fruit a few days after flowering.
• survival strategies: Fruits and seeds can remain viable in the soil for more than seven years, withstanding adverse conditions and reactivating the colony when circumstances are favorable.

Furthermore, it adapts to dry and alkaline soils, with a preference for environments with low competition and high mechanical disturbance (e.g., plowed fields or ruderal areas).

Identification and possible confusion

The caltrop It can occasionally be confused with other species of the genus Tribulus or with species of the genus Kallstroemia (family Zygophyllaceae), but is easily distinguished by the shape and arrangement of its spiny fruits. In Mexico, for example, the species Tribulus cystoides It is distinguished by having significantly larger flowers.

Traditional and current uses of caltrop

• Traditional medicine: Widely used in Ayurvedic medicine and Chinese herbal medicine, the plant is known as "gokshura» and is used as a tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, anti-inflammatory and stimulating agent.
• Attributed PropertiesIt has been used to treat everything from sexual dysfunction and urinary problems to skin conditions, wounds, eczema, and joint ailments. In folk tradition, infusions, tinctures, poultices, and decoctions are prepared for both internal and external use.
• emergency feeding: Both leaves and fruits and young shoots have been used as a sporadic food in times of scarcity, although their flavor and texture limit their popularity.
• Veterinary usesIn some areas, it has been used to treat urinary tract conditions in farm animals, although long-term risks advise against its routine use.
• Other uses: Nuts, due to their hardness and thorns, have been used as tools or even, in historical contexts, as defensive devices (traps).

Chemical composition and active ingredients

Tribulus terrestris It contains a variety of phytochemical compounds, including:

• Steroidal saponins: Mainly protodioscin and other similar ones, responsible for the most relevant biological activity and its supposed effects on libido and muscle tone.
• Flavonoids: Derivatives of kaempferol, with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
• alkaloids: Present in traces, such as harmane and norharane, with potentially toxic neuroactive activity at high doses or prolonged use.
• Tannins and resins: They provide astringent properties and promote healing.
• Other components: Traces of essential oils and phenolic compounds.

The phytochemical profile varies depending on the part of the plant, the time of harvest, and the growing conditions.

Properties and medicinal applications

La Phytotherapy and traditional medicine attribute to Tribulus terrestris the following effects:

• Sexual stimulation and improvement of male fertility: Through the action of protodioscin, some research suggests an increase in sperm production and improved erection, although the results are not conclusive for significant increases in testosterone in humans.
• Diuretic and purifying effect: It has been used to treat urinary tract infections, kidney problems and excess uric acid or urea.
• Improvement of sports performance: Appreciated by athletes for its supposed anabolic power and for combating asthenia, although there is no solid evidence to support these benefits.
• Topical use: In poultices and compresses, to accelerate wound healing, relieve eczema, mouth ulcers and sores thanks to its astringent and hemostatic action.
• Relief from menopause symptomsIn women, it has been traditionally used to counteract headaches, muscle pain and lower back pain associated with menopause, although the evidence is limited.

Despite their popularity, scientific results The evidence on its effectiveness is disparate and, in many cases, insufficient. Therefore, its use should always be done under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

Ways of use and preparations

• Liquid extracts: : Variable doses depending on the preparation, usually 5 to 10 drops per day, alone or combined with other natural stimulants such as maca or ginseng.
• Tincture: With or without alcohol, 20 to 30 drops divided into three daily doses.
• Infusions and decoctions: Using leaves, flowers or aerial parts, it is prepared with a teaspoon of coffee per cup, drinking up to two cups a day.
• Anabolic capsules or supplements: Very popular on the international market, especially in combination with zinc, vitamin B or other plant extracts.
• External use: Decoctions for rinses, washes, poultices or compresses for skin conditions.

The strong presence of saponins and alkaloids requires moderate the doses and avoid prolonged treatments without medical supervision.

Contraindications and precautions for use

Before consuming caltrop for medicinal purposes, it is essential to know the risks and consult a healthcare professional. The main precautions and contraindications include:

• Pregnancy and breastfeeding: Its use is not recommended due to the presence of alkaloids and potential toxicity.
• Patients with neurological, cardiac or liver diseases: They may be more sensitive to its side effects, including neurotoxicity and photosensitivity.
• Children and people with diabetes: It should not be administered due to potential risks and lack of conclusive studies.
• Surgical interventions: It is recommended to stop any supplement at least one month before surgery.
• continued use: There have been reports of irreversible neurotoxicity, blindness, skin and liver damage in animals after prolonged exposure. Uncontrolled use should not be continued, nor should the whole fruit be used for direct human consumption.
• efectos secundariosThe most common side effects are gastric discomfort, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal spasms, which are usually alleviated by consuming the preparation with meals.

Agricultural and ecological impact and importance

The caltrop is one of most problematic weeds in numerous crops, affecting:alfalfa, cotton, peanuts, sugarcane, sunflowers, vegetables, flaxseed, corn, sorghum, soybeans, tomatoes, and grapes, among others.

• competition for resources: Its rapid growth and proliferation capacity displaces cultivated plants and reduces agricultural yields.
• Livestock damage: The thorns on the fruit can cause lesions in the mouth, esophagus, and legs of cattle, as well as on wool and hair, reducing the value of the products and causing discomfort and illness.
• ToxicityIn large quantities, it can cause photodermatitis and be toxic to animals such as sheep and goats.
• Perseverance: Its seeds can survive long periods in the soil (more than seven years), making eradication difficult.

For these reasons, it is considered a difficult-to-manage weed and numerous methods have been developed for its control and eradication.

Control and eradication of Tribulus terrestris

• Manual controlIn small areas, the most effective method is manual removal of plants, ensuring that all roots and fruits are removed before planting crops.
• Mechanical control: Mowing and plowing are ineffective due to the plant's creeping habit and ability to regrow.
• Biologic control: There are experiences with Microlarinus lareynii y Microlarinus lypriformis, species of weevils that parasitize flowers and stems, respectively, and can reduce seed populations and plant vigor. Their use depends on the climate and the adaptation of the introduced species.
• Chemical control: Use of herbicides such as oryzalin, benefin, trifluralin (pre-emergence) and 2,4-D, glyphosate, or dicamba (post-emergence). Extreme caution should be taken to avoid damage to broadleaf crops, as some of these herbicides are harmful to other plants.
• Integrated management: Promoting competition with native plants or desirable crops reduces the presence of caltrop by limiting available resources.

La combination of strategies It is the most effective, since no single measure guarantees complete eradication due to the longevity of the seeds in the soil bank.

Ecological indicators and preferred habitats

El Tribulus terrestris It thrives in highly disturbed environments, with the following ecological indicators:

• Luz: Plant that does not tolerate shade, always growing in full sun.
• Salinity: It prefers soils without the presence of salts and is an indicator of dry and alkaline soils (pH 5.5 to 8).
• Humidity: Indicative of moderate dryness, it grows on well-drained soils with low humidity.
• Biological type: Therophyte (completes its cycle in the favorable season and survives the unfavorable period as a seed).
• Dispersion mode: Mainly epizoochory, although it can also be dispersed by humans (anthropochory) through tools and machinery.

Conservation, threats and status of the species

Globally, is not considered threatenedOn the contrary, due to its invasive nature, it is considered a problematic species in many countries due to its impact on ecosystems and agriculture.

• IUCN Category: Least Concern (LC).
• Population: Stable in most of its range.
• LegalityIn some countries it is considered a noxious weed and is subject to regulation to prevent its spread.

Potential threats to crops and local wildlife, as well as the health risks associated with unsupervised use, must be taken into account.

Comparison table: key aspects of the caltrop (Tribulus terrestris)

Appearance	Description
Scientific name	Tribulus terrestris
Family	Zygophyllaceae
Original distribution	Europe, Asia, Africa
Secondary distribution	Global, temperate and tropical zones
growth habit	Creeping, annual or perennial
Flores	Small, yellow, solitary
Fruit	Schizocarp with hard spines
Propagation	Epizoochory, high viability seeds
Medical uses	Tonic, aphrodisiac, diuretic, healing
Main risks	Neurotoxicity, gastric effects, toxicity in animals
Control	Manual, chemical, biological and integrated

The caltrop Tribulus terrestris is a plant of extraordinary adaptation, both for its morphological and chemical characteristics. It has gone from being considered a simple weed to enjoying significant recognition in traditional medicine and herbal medicine worldwide, although the risks of its indiscriminate use always require caution. Its control in agriculture remains a challenge, making the use of combined strategies and rigorous agroecological management essential. As a species, it also constitutes a fascinating example of survival and proliferation in hostile environments, making it the subject of ongoing study and analysis by botanists, agronomists, and health professionals.